A Short Synopsis of the Long History of Essential Oils: Ancient Egypt

I am so intrigued by the long history of oil use, and have an affinity for history and Ancient Egypt. I even was trained to be a docent at the Egyptian exhibit at the Royal Ontario Museum by their Egyptologist. (Unfortunately just after it finished I got a job offer in South Africa that I couldn't turn down, and I never got to work the exhibit...Oops.) Anyway, I did a bit of reading on the subject and wanted to pass on the cool stuff I learned, complete with nerdy sources.

One of the more glamorous stories about the importance of oils is that jars and jars of them were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamen, and still as potent as ever! As with more than a few grandiose tales, it is not entirely not the case, as the tomb was raided more than once before its discovery by British anthropologist Howard Carter in 1922, and any essential oils were stolen along with any gold. (Both being buried with the Pharaoh and being stolen out of the tomb many years later give us an idea of how very important these oils were to the Egyptians.) However, one special empty alabaster jar, carved especially to hold aromatic oils, remained and still had traces of the oils inside, and the smell was still present even after so many centuries.

The perfume found in the tomb was solid, much like oils blended with coconut oil, rather than viscous. It was analyzed in 1926 and "was found to consist of a "neutral animal fat" and a resin or balsam. At the time they were unable to be more specific. However, the primary fragrant component is now believed to be valerian's close cousin, the ancient and precious spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi)." (1) They also now believe that the animal fat that was reduced to make the perfume was probably goose. Spikenard has a very interesting documented history - enough to warrant its own blog post! I will link here when I finish it. :) Suspense...

Research has also found that oils were not only reserved for the Pharaohs; they were used by most in everyday living, from bathing to medial treatments, to religious worship and embalming. They were distributed in various ways, including wine. "Chemical analyses of ancient organics absorbed into pottery jars from the beginning of advanced ancient Egyptian culture, ca. 3150 B.C., and continuing for millennia have revealed that a range of natural products—specifically, herbs and tree resins—were dispensed by grape wine. These findings provide chemical evidence for ancient Egyptian organic medicinal remedies, previously only ambiguously documented in medical papyri dating back to ca. 1850 B.C. They illustrate how humans around the world, probably for millions of years, have exploited their natural environments for effective plant remedies, whose active compounds have recently begun to be isolated by modern analytical techniques."(2) And speaking of embalming, analysis of the mummy of Ramses V, who was embalmed and buried in the 1200s BCE show that the body was anointed or rubbed with "cedar oil, then with myrrh, cinnamon, and similar materials." (3)

There exist several interesting original texts or hieroglyphics regarding the distillation and use of oils in ancient Egyptian life. One is the temple of Edfu, on the banks of the Nile, dedicated to the god Horus. One room in particular, often referred to as the Laboratory, was dedicated to religious rites and offerings, and the walls are covered with instructions on the distillation process for obtaining oils and incense and recipes for different perfumes. Another such carving in excellent condition is found at the Temple of Kom Ombo, near Aswan, shown below.

Hieroglyph from the Temple of Kom Ombo depicting the process of distilling oils from plants.

Both of these temples are relatively recent, built during the Ptolemaic, or Hellenistic era. However, there are also several medial scrolls, including the Ebers Papyrus and Edwin Smith Papyrus, which date from 1550 BCE, but are thought to have contained information from earlier scrolls, some as old as 3500 BCE (based on archaic language, grammar and form)! (4) These scroll detail around 700 ailments and their treatments, and demonstrate a medical understanding beyond even that of Hippocrates, who lived 1000 years later. (5) The scrolls include remedies using 134 different plants. (6)

Edwin Smith Papyrus

It seems the Egyptians were quite advanced in the medicinal uses of essential oils and ointments. Homer c. 800 BC remarked in the Odyssey: "In Egypt, the men are more skilled in medicine than any of human kind" and "the Egyptians were skilled in medicine more than any other art". (7) In fact the Greeks and Romans sought out Egyptian perfumes, which were known for their quality and their long shelf-life. Many of their ingredients, including cinnamon, cedarwood, myrrh, and even frankincense, would have been imported from other regions such as Africa and the Middle East along the trade route, fashioned into perfumes and unguents, and exported out along the same routes. When Egypt fell under Roman rule, Julius Caesar apparently threw bottle of Egyptian perfume to the crowds that lined his victory parade to illustrate his conquest. (7)

Today, Egypt continues to produce many of the world's essential oils, especially geranium and jasmine. In fact, Egypt exports "more than 30 different products, with a total export value in the range US$35 to US$40 million/yr." (8) According to their website, Young Living doesn't currently source from Egypt or anywhere in Africa, but many other companies do. Have a look and see which ones you are using are from there!

(1) Information regarding Tutankhamun's ointment may be found in Aytoun Ellis' "The Essence of Beauty: A History of Perfume and Cosmetics," published by the MacMillan Company, New York, 1960. As quoted on http://www.touregypt.net/egypt-info/magazine-mag03012001-mag4.htm.

(1) PNAS April 13, 2009. pnas.0811578106; published ahead of print April 13, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811578106

(3) Lloyd, Alan B. Herodotus book II: Commentary, 1r-98. Excerpt: https://bit.ly/2IJKmrG

(4) Ritner, Robert K. (2005) [First published 2001]. "Medicine". In Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt (Online ed.). Oxford Reference. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195102345.001.0001.

(5) Ghalioungui, Paul (1965) [First published 1963]. Magic and Medical Science in Ancient Egypt. New York: Barnes & Noble. LCCN 65029851.

(6) Pharaohs and the first prescriptions, The Pharmaceutical Journal 22 DEC 2007

(7) Manniche, Lise: Sacred Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy, and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt (1999) As quoted on https://www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk/perfume.html.

(8) Essential Oil Production in North Africa, International Trade Center: https://bit.ly/2GROaRQ